US Foreign Policy

The United States is the world's largest economy and a leading military power. Its foreign policy decisions affect every country on earth. Understanding how US foreign policy is made, who the key actors are, and the major institutions involved is essential for understanding American government and global affairs.

Constitutional Authority Over Foreign Policy

Foreign policy authority is shared between the executive and legislative branches — a source of ongoing constitutional tension.

Presidential Powers

• Commander in Chief: Directs the armed forces; conducts military operations
• Treaty power: Negotiates treaties (requires 2/3 Senate ratification)
• Executive agreements: Agreements with foreign governments that don't require Senate ratification; broadly used
• Nominate ambassadors: Appoints ambassadors (Senate confirmation required)
• Recognition power: Recognizes or withholds recognition of foreign governments and states
• Conduct diplomacy: The primary driver of day-to-day foreign relations

Congressional Powers

• Declare war: Only Congress can formally declare war (last declared war: World War II)
• Fund the military: All military spending must be appropriated by Congress
• Ratify treaties: Senate must ratify treaties by 2/3 vote
• Confirm ambassadors and State Department nominees: Senate confirmation required
• War Powers Resolution (1973): Requires the President to notify Congress within 48 hours of committing forces abroad; forces must be withdrawn within 60–90 days unless Congress authorises continued action. Presidents have complied inconsistently; constitutionality disputed.
• Trade policy: Article I gives Congress the power to regulate international commerce; Congress has delegated much of this to the executive

The "Two Presidencies" Theory

Scholar Aaron Wildavsky observed that presidents succeed much more in foreign policy than domestic policy — Congress defers more readily to the executive in foreign affairs, especially during crises.

Key Institutions

Department of State

The State Department is the lead US agency for foreign affairs, headed by the Secretary of State (Cabinet position). Key functions:

• Conduct diplomatic relations with foreign governments
• Manage 275+ US embassies, consulates, and diplomatic missions worldwide
• Issue US passports and provide consular services to Americans abroad
• Negotiate international agreements
• Coordinate US foreign assistance programs

National Security Council (NSC)

The NSC is the President's primary forum for considering national security and foreign policy matters. Statutory members: President, Vice President, Secretary of State, Secretary of Defense, and others. The National Security Advisor is a key staff role — not requiring Senate confirmation.

Department of Defense (DoD)

The military is under civilian control — the Secretary of Defense (civilian) and, ultimately, the President. The Joint Chiefs of Staff are the senior military advisors. The US military has 1.3 million active-duty service members and the largest defense budget in the world ($858 billion in FY 2024).

Intelligence Community

17 agencies including the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency — human intelligence, analysis), NSA (signals intelligence), DIA (defense intelligence), and the Director of National Intelligence coordinating all.

US Agency for International Development (USAID)

Manages US foreign assistance — economic development, disaster relief, democracy promotion — with a budget of ~$40 billion/year. Operates in 100+ countries.

Major US Alliances and Organizations

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

• Founded: 1949; collective defense alliance
• Members: 32 countries (including Canada, UK, France, Germany, and with Finland and Sweden joining in 2023–2024)
• Article 5: Collective defense — an attack on one member is an attack on all
• US role: Largest contributor to NATO; nuclear deterrent umbrella for European allies
• Post-Cold War expansion: NATO expanded eastward after 1991; a key source of tension with Russia that contributed to the Ukraine conflict

United Nations (UN)

The US is a founding member (1945) and the largest single funder (~22% of regular budget, 27% of peacekeeping budget). The US holds a permanent veto on the UN Security Council (along with China, Russia, UK, France).

Key UN bodies:

• Security Council: 15 members (5 permanent + 10 rotating); primary responsibility for international peace and security
• General Assembly: All 193 member states; votes are not binding on Security Council
• International Court of Justice (ICJ): Settles legal disputes between states

Other Key Alliances

Alliance/Partnership	Nature
US-Japan alliance	Security treaty; US military bases in Japan; Japan's defense
US-South Korea alliance	Security treaty; 28,500+ US troops in South Korea
AUKUS	Australia, UK, US — advanced military technology sharing; nuclear submarine deal (2021)
Five Eyes	Intelligence sharing: US, UK, Canada, Australia, New Zealand
US-Israel relationship	Major non-NATO ally; $3.8 billion/year in military assistance
US-Saudi Arabia	Oil security + arms sales; complex relationship

Trade Policy

Free Trade and Trade Agreements

The US has free trade agreements (FTAs) with 20 countries. Major agreements:

• USMCA (United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement): Replaced NAFTA in 2020; governs $1.5+ trillion in annual trade
• FTAs with: South Korea, Australia, Chile, Singapore, Israel, Bahrain, Morocco, etc.

The US is a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) — which sets rules for international trade and provides a dispute resolution mechanism.

Tariffs and Trade Wars

Section 232 tariffs (national security): Trump administration imposed 25% tariffs on steel and 10% on aluminum from most countries (2018); Biden administration maintained most of these.

Section 301 tariffs (China): Trump administration imposed broad tariffs on ~$350 billion of Chinese goods in 2018–2019; Biden maintained and expanded them. Context: US-China trade tensions over intellectual property theft, unfair subsidies, and technology competition.

Most Favored Nation (MFN) / Permanent Normal Trade Relations (PNTR): Countries with MFN status pay the lowest US tariff rates. Congress revoked Russia's PNTR in 2022 following the Ukraine invasion.

The Evolution of US Foreign Policy

Era	Approach
Isolationism (1789–1941)	Washington's Farewell Address warned against "permanent alliances"; US stayed out of European affairs; Monroe Doctrine (1823) warned Europeans against colonising the Western Hemisphere
World War II & emergence as superpower (1941–1945)	Pearl Harbor ended isolationism; US emerged from WWII as world's dominant economic and military power
Cold War (1945–1991)	Containment of Soviet communism; Marshall Plan; NATO; Korean War; Vietnam War; détente; nuclear arms race
Post-Cold War (1991–2001)	"Unipolar moment" — US as sole superpower; expansion of NATO; humanitarian interventions (Bosnia, Kosovo)
War on Terror (2001–2021)	September 11 attacks → Afghanistan invasion; Iraq War; drone strikes; enhanced surveillance; counterterrorism focus
Great Power Competition (2017–present)	Rise of China as peer competitor; US-China trade war; Russia's Ukraine invasion; AUKUS; industrial policy (CHIPS Act)

Study Snapshot

US Foreign Policy — constitutional authority (President leads, Congress funds/declares war/ratifies treaties), key institutions (State Dept, NSC, DoD, CIA), major alliances (NATO/Article 5, UN Security Council veto), trade policy (USMCA, WTO, tariffs), and historical evolution (isolationism → Cold War containment → Great Power competition).

Concept Flow

Check Your Understanding

1. What is the War Powers Resolution (1973) and why has its constitutionality been questioned?
2. What does NATO's Article 5 require, and why has it become central to US European policy since Russia's Ukraine invasion?
3. Why does the US hold special veto power at the UN Security Council and how is that power used?
4. What shift from the Cold War "containment" strategy is represented by the current "Great Power Competition" framework?